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Recommended Textbooks:
Twiss, R.J. and Moores, E.M. 1992. Structural geology. W.H. Freeman and
Co., New York, 532 pp.
Chapter 18 gives a very nice review of rheology. Chapter 20 covers scale
modeling and scaling principles. If you don't have time to look at the
rest of the reading list, you should definitely read these two chapters.
Turcotte and Schubert, Geodynamics (2nd edition).
Of particular relevance are:
Chapter 3: Elasticity and Flexure (p 105 to 130).
Chapter 6: Fluid Mechanics (p 226 to 241).
Chapter 7: Rock rheology (visco-elastic, elasto-plastic behavior) (p 327
to 337)
Jaeger and Cook, Fundamental of rock mechanics.
Constitutive updates used in numerical modeling is in the Chapters on
elasticity, time-dependent behavior (viscoelasticity) and
elastoplasticity.
Articles recommended by Scott
Johnson and Basil Tikoff
Many of the articles in this group can be accessed in pdf format at: http://www.geology.um.maine.edu/user/scott_johnson/share/ISESreading/
Strongly recommended readings for Day 1 are: Reiner (1964 – a single page!); Talbot (1999), Treagus (1999), and Groome and Johnson (2006, JSG). Scott will devote time to the Groome and Johnson data set in his lectures on Sunday, so we urge you to acquaint yourself with it.
One point-of-information on the Hobbs et al. (2000) article: Equation 4 is incorrect (inverted), although the concept is used correctly.
Doraiswamy, D., 2002. The Origins of Rheology: A Short Historical Excursion. The Society of Rheology, Bulletin, 71(1).
Groome, W.G., Johnson S.E., and Koons, P.O., 2006. The effects of porphyroblast growth on the effective viscosity of metapelitic rocks: implications for the strength of the middle crust. J. metamorphic Geol., 2006, 24, 389–407 doi:10.1111/j.1525-1314.2006.00644.x
Groome, W.G. and Johnson S.E., 2006. Constraining the relative strengths of high-grade metamorphic rocks using foliation refraction angles: an example from the Northern New England Appalachians. Journal of Structural Geology 28, 1261–1276. Offers a contemporary application of foliation refraction in relation to transient rheological evolution.
Hobbs, B.E., Mühlhaus, H-B., Ord A., Zhang Y., and Moresi, L. Fold Geometry and Constitutive behaviour. In: Stress, Strain and Structure, A volume in honour of W D Means. Eds: M.W. Jessell and J.L.Urai. Volume 2, Journal of the Virtual Explorer (on-line).
Ji, Shaocheng, 2004. A generalized mixture rule for estimating the viscosity of solid-liquid suspensions and mechanical properties of polyphase rocks and composite materials. JGR, v. 109, B10207, doi:10.1029/2004JB003124.
Kenis, Ilse; Janos L. Uraib, Wouter van der Zeeb, Christoph Hilgersb, and Manuel Sintubin, 2005. Rheology of fine-grained siliciclastic rocks in the middle crust—evidence from structural and numerical analysis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 233, 351– 360.
Larsen, Christopher F.; Roman J. Motyka, Jeffrey T. Freymueller, Keith A. Echelmeyer, and Erik R. Ivins, 2005. Rapid viscoelastic uplift in southeast Alaska caused by post-Little Ice Age glacial retreat. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 237, 548– 560.
Means, W., 1990. Kinematics, stress, deformation and material behavior. Journal of Structural Geology, 12 (8), 953-971.
Reiner, M., 1964. The Deborah Number, Physics Today, p. 62.
Talbot C.J, 1999. Can field data constrain rock viscosities? Journal of Structural Geology, v. 21, 949±957
Treagus, Susan H., 1999. Are viscosity ratios of rocks measurable from cleavage refraction? Journal of Structural Geology, v. 21, 895-90.
Recommended by Jan Tullis
Tullis, J. (2002) Deformation of granitic rocks: Experimental studies and
natural examples. In, Plastic Deformation of Minerals and Rocks, Reviews
in Mineralogy & Geochemistry, eds. S-i Karato & H-R Wenk, v. 51, 51-95.
This review paper attempts to summarize our understanding of the ductile
deformation mechanisms operative in quartzo-feldspathic rocks at different
conditions, as deduced from both laboratory experiments and naturally
deformed rocks. It includes a summary of the characteristics of the 3
dislocation creep regimes identified in quartz by Hirth & Tullis (1992,
JSG) and extends them to feldspar.
Hirth, G., Teyssier, C. & Dunlap, WJ (2001) An evaluation of quartzite
flow laws based on comparisons between experimentally and naturally
deformed rocks. Intl. Journal of Earth Science, v 90, p. 77-87.
This paper illustrates how observations from naturally deformed rocks can
be combined with results of deformation experiments to constrain the
dislocation creep flow law for quartz. It references a classic paper by
Dunlap et al. (1997, Tectonics) that was the first to use dislocation
creep regime microstructures to decipher regional deformation.
Heilbronner, R. and Tullis, J. (2002) The effect of static annealing on
microstructures and crystallographic preferred orientations of quartzites
experimentally deformed in axial compression and shear. In, Deformation
Mechanisms, Rheology and Tectonics: Current Status and Future Prospects;
eds S DeMeer, MR Drury, JHP DeBresser & GM Pennock, Geol Soc Lond Spec.
Pub v. 200, 191-218.
This paper illustrates the optical microstructures and c axis LPOs
developed in axial compression and shear experiments on quartzite in all 3
dislocation creep regimes, and demonstrates that contrary to common
assumptions, static annealing does not randomize the deformation LPO.
Heilbronner, R. and Tullis, J. (In Press) Evolution of c-axis pole figures
and grain size during progressive grain boundary migration
recrystallization: Results from experimentally sheared quartzite. Jour.
Geophys. Res.
This paper illustrates how the pattern of c axis LPO in quartzite sheared
in dislocation creep regime 3 changes completely from a maximum consistent
with dominantly basal a slip at low to intermediate strain to a Y maximum
consistent with prism a slip at a shear strain of about 3 to 4. This
change is accomplished by grain boundary migration recrystallization
favoring the nucleation and growth of prism a grains and the consumption
of basal a grains. Y maxima are common in nature, but had never been
developed in lower strain experiments.
Stipp, M. & Tullis, J. (2003) The recrystallized grain size piezometer for
quartz. Geophys. Res. Lett., v. 30, doi:10.1029/2003GL018444
This paper reports the first experimental calibration of the
recrystallized grain size piezometer for quartz that can be trusted, due
to the excellent stress sensitivity of the molten salt assembly used in
the Griggs apparatus. A more recent expanded study (JGR, 2006)
demonstrated that this piezometer relation does not depend on water
content or on temperature (however one must evaluate whether the natural
recrystallized grain size of interest reflects steady state, and was not
pinned by other phases or statically annealed after deformation).
Holyoke, C. & Tullis, J., (2006) Formation and maintenance of shear zones.
Geology, 34, 105-108.
This paper documents how changes in phase arrangement as well as the
presence or absence of metamorphic reactions accompanying shear of a
granitic aggregate can affect the degree of strain weakening and
localization.
Recommended by Holger Stünitz
Kruse, R. & Stünitz, H. (1999): Deformation mechanisms and phase
distribution in mafic high temperature mylonites from the Jotun nappe,
Southern Norway. Tectonophysics 303, p. 223-249
The paper presents a quantitative chemical and phase distribution analysis
to infer deformation mechanisms and recrystallization processes of
quartz-free high grade shear zones. The phase distribution analysis is
used to conclude that hornblende forms well disseminated aggregates with
plagioclase during deformation. The deformation process of the aggregates
is not crystal plasticity but grain boundary sliding accompanied by
diffusional mass transfer (granular flow).
Stünitz, H. & Tullis, J. (2001): Weakening and strain localization
produced by syndeformational reaction of plagioclase. Int. J. Earth Sci.
90, 136-148.
This publication deals with the rheological effects of deforming rocks
outside their chemical equilibrium conditions - a situation which appears
to be typical during the tectonic evolution of mountain belts. The paper
describes hydration reactions in plagioclase. A pronounced weakening was
observed when the mineral reactions occurred during deformation. Reaction
kinetics in solid-solid reactions are increased by orders of magnitude,
even in the absence of fluids. Thus, shear zones may localize deformation
because of reactions occurring and, at the same time, sheared rocks
equilibrate faster than the undeformed country rock due to driving
potential from mechanical work.
Kruse, R.; Stünitz, H. & Kunze, K. (2001): Dynamic recrystallization
proceses in plagioclase porphyroclasts. J. Struct. Geol. 23, p. 1881-1802
This paper analyzes the recrystallization mechanisms in plagioclase
feldspar. Both, subgrain rotation and brittle processes can be identified
and their microstructures be distinguished. The reacrystallization
microstrucutres can be explained in temrs of slip systems activated.
Stipp, M.; Stünitz, H.; Heilbronner, R. & Schmid, S.M. (2002): The eastern
Tonale fault zone: a 'natural laboratory' for crystal plastic deformation
of quartz over a temperature range from 250 - 700? C. J. Struct. Geol. 24,
p.1861-1884
Stipp, M., Stünitz, H., Heilbronner, R. & Schmid, S. M. (2002): Dynamic
recrystallization of quartz: Correlation between natural and experimental
conditions. In: S. de Meer, M. R. Drury, J. H. P. de Bresser & G. M.
Pennock: Deformation Mechanisms, Rheology and Tectonics: Current Status
and Future Perspectives. Geological Society, London, Special Publications
200, 171-190.
These publications demonstrate the systematic changes in the quartz
microstructures and textures (= crystallographic preferred orientation;
CPO) across a synkinematic temperature gradient. The changes are very
similar to those found in experiments by Hirth & Tullis (1992), and we
have been able to correlate the experimental and natural microstructures
quantitatively. The result is a recrystallization mechanism map which
allows structural geologists to use natural quartz deformation
microstructures to estimate temperature of deformation in conjuction with
strain rate.
Stünitz, H., FitzGerald, J.D., Tullis, J. (2003): Dislocation generation,
slip systems, and dynamic recrystallization in experimentally deformed
plagioclase single crystals, Tectonophysics, 372, p. 215-233
This publication demonstrates that the activation of slip systems in
plagioclase (and perhaps in other minerals, too) is promoted by brittle
fracturing. Brittle deformation also produces nuclei for dynamic
recrystallization. These observations are important for our understanding
of plastic deformation processes and dynamic recrystallization of minerals
in nature.
Recommended reading for section on Analogue Modelling given by A. Cruden.
References indicated with *asterisk are available in PDF form at this web
site: http://www.geology.utoronto.ca/tectonicslab/news.html
*Cruden, A.R., Nasseri, M.H., & Pysklywec, R. 2006. Surface topography and
internal strain variation in wide hot orogens from three-dimensional
analogue and two-dimensional numerical vise models. In: S. Buitner & G.
Schreurs (Eds), Analogue & Numerical Modelling of Crustal Scale Processes.
Geological Society of London, Special Publication 253, 79-104.
A recent example of 3D physical modelling of lithospheric compression
using granular and viscous materials that will be discussed in class.
*Pysklywec, R. & Cruden, A.R. 2004. Coupled crust-mantle dynamics and
intraplate tectonics: two-dimensional numerical and three-dimensional
analogue modelling. G3 Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 5 (10),
Q10003, doi:10.1029/2004GC000748.
A recent example of 3D physical modelling of mantle-lithosphere
interaction using granular and viscous materials that will be discussed in class.
Also includes comparisons between laboratory and numerical modeling results.
Schellart, W.P. 2000. Shear test results for cohesion and friction
coefficients for different granular materials: scaling implications for
their usage in analogue modelling. Tectonophysics, 324, 1-16.
A modern and thorough analysis of the mechanical properties of granular
materials and their suitability for modelling brittle deformation.
*Schreurs, G., Buiter, S., Boutelier, B., Corti, G., Costa, E, Cruden, A.,
Daniel, J.-M., Del Ventisetti, C., Elder Brady, J., Hoffmann-Rothe, A.,
Hoth, S., Koyi, H., Kukowski, N., Lohrmann, J., Mengus, J.-M., Montanari,
D., Nilfouroshan, F., Ravaglia, A., Schlische, R., Withjack, M., & Yamada,
Y. 2006. Analogue benchmarks of shortening and extension experiments. In:
S. Buitner & G. Schreurs (Eds), Analogue & Numerical Modelling of Crustal
Scale Processes. Geological Society of London, Special Publication, 253, 1-27.
Presents a unique attempt to benchmark physical experiments between
different laboratories using granular materials under both compressional
and extensional boundary conditions.
ten Grotenhuis, S.M., Piazolo, S., Pakula, T., Passchier, C.W., Bons, P.D.
2002. Are polymers suitable rock analogs? Tectonophysics 350, 35- 47.
An interesting analysis of commonly used ductile modelling materials from
A material science point of view using advanced rheological concepts and
measurements.
Twiss, R.J. and Moores, E.M. 1992. Structural geology. W.H. Freeman and
Co., New York, 532 pp.
Chapter 18 gives a very nice review of rheology. Chapter 20 covers scale
modeling and scaling principles. If you don't have time to look at the
rest of the reading list, you should definitely read these two chapters.
Additional background literature on analogue modeling and materials.
Cobbold, P.R., and Jackson, M.P.A., 1992. Gum rosin (colophony): a
suitable material for thermomechanical modelling of the lithosphere. Tectonophysics
210, 255-271.
Interesting material, but the main reason to look at this paper is to learn about how a rotary viscometer works. We will (hopefully) be using a viscometer in class based on the design presented in this paper.
Davy, P. & Cobbold. P.R. 1991. Experiments on shortening of a 4-layer
Model of the continental lithosphere. Tectonophysics, 188, 1--25, 1991.
Original paper introducing the scaling and materials now commonly used for
modeling lithospheric scale deformation at 1g.
Ramberg, H., 1967 and 1982. Gravity, Deformation and the Earth's Crust
(1st and 2nd editions). Academic Press, London. Classic text on modelling.
Rananlli, G. 2001. Experimental tectonics: from Sir James Hall to the
present. Journal of Geodynamics, 32, 65-76. An historical review.
Weijermars, R. 1986. Flow behaviour and physical chemistry of bouncing
putties and related polymers in view of tectonic laboratory experiments.
Tectonophysics, 124, 325-358.
First paper to document the properties of PDMS and other silicone-based
materials now commonly used in analogue modelling.
Weijermars, R., and Schmeling, H., 1986. Scaling of Newtonian and
non-Newtonian fluid dynamics without inertia for quantitative modelling of
rock flow due to gravity (including the concept of rheological
similarity). Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 43, 316-330.
An attempt to provide a foundation for scale modelling of non-Newtonian
materials. Introduces the concept of rheological similarity and has a
classic plot comparing rheologies of rocks to various modelling materials.
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